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# 统计代写| Definition of expectation stat代写

## 统计代考

4.1 Definition of expectation
In the previous chapter, we introduced the distribution of a random variable, which gives us full information about the probability that the r.v. will fall into any particular set. For example, we can say how likely it is that the r.v. will exceed 1000, that it will equal 5 , or that it will be in the interval $[0,7]$. It can be unwieldy to manage so many probabilities though, so often we want just one number summarizing the “average” value of the r.v.
There are several senses in which the word “average” is used, but by far the most commonly used is the mean of an r.v., also known as its expected value. In addition, much of statistics is about understanding variability in the world, so it is often important to know how “spread out” the distribution is; we will formalize this with the concepts of variance and standard deviation. As we’ll see, variance and standard deviation are defined in terms of expecte far beyond just computing averages.

Given a list of numbers $x_{1}, x_{2}, \ldots, x_{n}$, the familiar way to average them is to add them up and divide by $n$. This is called the arithmetic mean, and is defined by
$$\bar{x}=\frac{1}{n} \sum_{j=1}^{n} x_{j} .$$
More generally, we can define a weighted mean of $x_{1}, \ldots, x_{n}$ as
$$\text { weighted-mean }(x)=\sum_{j=1}^{n} x_{j} p_{j},$$
where the weights $p_{1}, \ldots, p_{n}$ are pre-specified nonnegative numbers that add up to 1 (so the unweighted mean $\bar{x}$ is obtained when $p_{j}=1 / n$ for all $j$ ).
The definition of expectation for a discrete r.v. is inspired by the weighted mean of a list of numbers, with weights given by probabilities.
Definition 4.1.1 (Expectation of a discrete r.v.). The expected value (also called the expectation or mean) of a discrete r.v. $X$ whose distinct possible values are
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$x_{1}, x_{2}, \ldots$ is defined by
$$E(X)=\sum_{j=1}^{\infty} x_{j} P\left(X=x_{j}\right)$$
If the support is finite, then this is replaced by a finite sum. We can also write
$$E(X)=\sum_{x} \underbrace{x}{\text {value }} \underbrace{P(X=x)}{\mathrm{PMF} \text { at } x}$$
where the sum is over the support of $X$ (in any case, $x P(X=x)$ is 0 for any $x$ not in the support). The expectation is undefined if $\sum_{j=1}^{\infty}\left|x_{j}\right| P\left(X=x_{j}\right)$ diverges, since then the series for $E(X)$ diverges or its value depends on the order in which the $x_{j}$ are listed.

In words, the expected value of $X$ is a weighted average of the possible values that $X$ can take on, weighted by their probabilities. Let’s check that the definition makes sense in a few simple examples:

1. Let $X$ be the result of rolling a fair 6-sided die, so $X$ takes on the values $1,2,3,4,5,6$, with equal probabilities. Intuitively, we should be able to get the average by adding up these values and dividing by 6 . Using the definition, the expected value is
$$E(X)=\frac{1}{6}(1+2+\cdots+6)=3.5$$
as we expected. Note that $X$ never equals its mean in this example. This is similar to the fact that the average number of children per household in some country could be $1.8$, but that doesn’t mean that a typical household has $1.8$ children!
$2 .$
Let $X \sim \operatorname{Bern}(p)$ and $q=1-p$. Then
$$E(X)=1 p+0 q=p$$
which makes sense intuitively since it is between the two possible values of $X$, compromising between 0 and 1 based on how likely each is. This is illustrated in Figure $4.1$ for a case with $p<1 / 2$ : two pebbles are being balanced on a seesaw. For the seesaw to balance, the fulcrum (shown as triangle) must be at $p$, which in physics terms is the center of mass.
The frequentist interpretation would be to consider a large number of independent Bernoulli trials, each with probability $p$ of success. Writing 1 for “success” and 0 for “failure”, in the long run we would expect to have data consisting of a list of numbers where the proportion of 1’s is very
3.-Let X have 3 distinct poseible values, a $a_{1}, a_{2}, a_{3}, \mathrm{~ w i t h ~ p r o b a b i l i t i e s ~ p}$
2. Let $X$ have 3 distinct possible values, $a_{1}, a_{2}, a_{3}$, with probabilities $p_{1}, p_{2}, p_{3}$, respectively. Imagine running a simulation where $n$ independent draws

## 统计代考

4.1 期望的定义

$$\bar{x}=\frac{1}{n} \sum_{j=1}^{n} x_{j} 。$$

$$\text { 加权平均 }(x)=\sum_{j=1}^{n} x_{j} p_{j},$$

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$x_{1}, x_{2}, \ldots$ 定义为
$$E(X)=\sum_{j=1}^{\infty} x_{j} P\left(X=x_{j}\right)$$

$$E(X)=\sum_{x} \underbrace{x}{\text {value }} \underbrace{P(X=x)}{\mathrm{PMF} \text { at } x}$$

1. 假设 $X$ 是掷出一个公平的 6 面骰子的结果，因此 $X$ 取值 $1,2,3,4,5,6$，概率相等。直观地说，我们应该能够通过将这些值相加并除以 6 来获得平均值。使用定义，期望值为
$$E(X)=\frac{1}{6}(1+2+\cdots+6)=3.5$$
正如我们所料。请注意，在此示例中，$X$ 永远不会等于它的平均值。这类似于某些国家/地区每户家庭的平均儿童数量可能是 1.8 美元，但这并不意味着一个典型的家庭有 1.8 美元的孩子！
$2 .$
令 $X \sim \operatorname{Bern}(p)$ 和 $q=1-p$。然后
$$E(X)=1 p+0 q=p$$
这在直觉上是有道理的，因为它介于 $X$ 的两个可能值之间，根据每个值的可能性在 0 和 1 之间进行折衷。图 $4.1$ 说明了 $p<1 / 2$ 的情况：两颗鹅卵石在跷跷板上保持平衡。为了使跷跷板平衡，支点（显示为三角形）必须位于 $p$，在物理学术语中是质心。
频率论者的解释是考虑大量独立的伯努利试验，每个试验的成功概率为 $p$。写 1 表示“成功”，写 0 表示“失败”，从长远来看，我们希望有一个由数字列表组成的数据，其中 1 的比例非常
3.-让 X 有 3 个不同的可能值，a $a_{1}, a_{2}, a_{3}, \mathrm{~ w i t h ~ p r o b a b i l i t i e s ~ p}$
2. 令 $X$ 有 3 个不同的可能值，$a_{1}、a_{2}、a_{3}$，概率分别为 $p_{1}、p_{2}、p_{3}$。想象一下运行一个模拟，其中 $n$ 独立绘制