如果你也在 怎样代写geography这个学科遇到相关的难题，请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。geography是一个科学领域，致力于研究地球和行星的土地、特征、居民和现象。第一个使用γεωγραφία这个词的人是埃拉托色尼（公元前276-194年）。地理学是一门包罗万象的学科，它寻求对地球及其人类和自然的复杂性的理解–不仅仅是物体在哪里，还包括它们是如何变化和形成的。
geography通常被定义为两个分支：人文地理学和自然地理学。人文地理学关注的是对人及其社区、文化、经济的研究，以及通过研究他们与空间和地点的关系，与环境的相互作用。自然地理学关注的是对自然环境中的过程和模式的研究，如大气圈、水圈、生物圈和地圈。
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非线性方法 nonlinear method functional analysis
变分法 Calculus of Variations
地理代写|geography代考|Typologies and Definitions
While interconnected and interdependent, return, repeat and onward migration are distinct phenomena. Their definitions differ among social sciences, countries, and time frame. Nostalgia and the fantasy about returning to the homeland are an integral part of immigrants’ life, permeating even the diaspora. Yet, even though immigrants swear that they will return to the homeland one day, not all of them do. Some move on to another host country, while others go on a circle of back and forth between host and home in regular or irregular intervals.
Return migration is the movement of persons, who have been living abroadeither short or long term-back to their country of citizenship and who plan to stay in their country for one year or more (UNSD 1998). In reality, people may naturalize in the host country and keep both citizenships, or may be forced to renounce their birth citizenship in the process. IOM (2004) provides a looser definition of return migration: “the act of going back from a country of presence (either transit or destination) to the country of previous transit, or origin” (p. 11).
The implicit assumption is that return or repeat migration pertains to firstgeneration immigrants. However, return migration applies to second, third, or thirdplus generations as well as to the diaspora (Constant and Zimmermann 2016). Turkish children born in Germany, who may or may not be German citizens upon birth, are return migrants when they relocate to Turkey (Constant and Massey 2003; Constant and Zimmermann 2003, 2011, 2012). The term equally applies to other secondgeneration immigrants with conflicted and opposing identities, who feel that their home country is the birth country of their parents, rather than the one they have been born in and raised.
地理代写|geography代考|Skilled Migration, the Knowledge Society, and Return/Repeat Migration
The global race for talent over the last two decades has more and more countries pursuing policies to stimulate innovation and entrepreneurship, to be at the forefront of the knowledge economy, and to ensure competitiveness. It is a race ${ }^{1}$ because the sought after know-how and competencies cannot be immediately satisfied by the domestic workforce but need to be recruited from the global labor market. Highskilled or knowledge migrants are a readily available group to fulfill such short-run shortages, especially in aging societies and when labor markets are not flexible. To attract highly skilled migrants, countries started modifying their policies, developing new strategies, or initiating new policies such as flexible admission criteria and attractive residence pathways. ${ }^{2}$
Skilled migrants have, typically, tertiary education, that is, a minimum of a formal two-year college education. Occasionally, it is the occupation that defines the skilled migrants, each host country having a detailed list to choose from. Some governments use both education and occupation when they define skilled migrants to issue visas. A subcategory of skilled migrants is the international students who graduate from the host country’s universities. Understanding their value, host countries have created new provisions to keep them.
Medical personnel, scientists, academics, managers, specialists, and investors, are under the skilled rubric. Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) majors are in highest demand among the skilled and have the highest rates of mobility. STEM includes computer scientists, IT, biologists, and scientific inventors. Interestingly, the demand for the highly skilled has continued during and after the great recession and policies have not become more restrictive (Zaiceva and Zimmermann 2016).
Arguments for skilled migration emphasize that in the production process, skilled migrants are not close substitutes to skilled natives, because of specialization, while they are complements to the less skilled and to physical capital. Thus it is difficult to displace the natives, and wages are less likely to be affected. Skilled migrants bring knowledge, increase productivity, and economic growth through innovation and creativity, they raise living standards, create jobs, make positive net fiscal contributions to the system, and integrate faster in the labor market (Constant 2014). Similar arguments apply to circular migration (Zimmermann 2014). Kourtit et al. (2017) find evidence of a triple-win for skilled immigrants in the Netherlands.
地理代写|GEOGRAPHY代考|Theoretical Foundations of Migration Moves
There are several theories that offer answers to the question of why people move. Each discipline in the social sciences has its own theories which are not always compatible. ${ }^{8}$ However, fewer theories allow for return and repeat migration. ${ }^{9}$ Here I present a synopsis of the relevant theories that envision return/repeat migration, predict the self-selection of returnees, and show that they can complement one another.
Under Neoclassical Economics (NE) the decision-maker is a rational individual with full information, who performs a cost-benefit analysis over some time horizon based on wage differentials and undertakes the move when the present value of the expected discounted net return is positive. Assuming homogeneous income, utility or income is maximized subject to constraints. The duration of residence abroad is also maximized, intending to settle permanently and bring family. Viewing migration as investment in human productivity, Human Capital Theory (HCT) can predict the characteristics of the migrants. People move to where their human capital is rewarded best.
While NE explains initial migration and secondary/onward migration, it perceives return and repeat migration irrational and not income maximizing, ceteris paribus. By definition, returnees are those who did not succeed in the host country and the human capital they obtained abroad is not always transferable. Because immigrants are in the host country for the long haul, they will not return immediately after they fail, but will stay and spend time looking for a new or a better job. Returnees will be negatively selected in all economic outcomes (Constant and Massey 2002), and may be negative selected in unobservables such as ability or fortitude.
geography代写
地理代写|GEOGRAPHY代考|TYPOLOGIES AND DEFINITIONS
虽然相互关联和相互依存，但返回、重复和继续迁移是不同的现象。它们的定义因社会科学、国家和时间框架而异。乡愁和返乡的幻想是移民生活中不可分割的一部分，甚至渗透到侨民身上。然而，即使移民发誓他们有一天会回到祖国，但并非所有人都这样做。有些人搬到另一个东道国，而另一些人则定期或不定期地在东道国和家乡之间来回走动。
返回移民是指短期或长期居住在国外的人返回其国籍国并计划在其国家停留一年或更长时间的人的流动在ñ小号D1998. 实际上，人们可能在东道国入籍并保留两个公民身份，或者在此过程中可能被迫放弃其出生公民身份。国际移民组织2004对返回移民提供了更宽松的定义：“从存在的国家返回的行为和一世吨H和r吨r一种ns一世吨这rd和s吨一世n一种吨一世这n到先前过境国或原籍国”p.11.
隐含的假设是返回或重复迁移与第一代移民有关。但是，返回移民适用于第二代、第三代或第三代以上以及散居国外的人C这ns吨一种n吨一种nd从一世米米和r米一种nn2016. 在德国出生的土耳其儿童，出生时可能是也可能不是德国公民，在他们重新安置到土耳其时是返回移民C这ns吨一种n吨一种nd米一种ss和是2003;C这ns吨一种n吨一种nd从一世米米和r米一种nn2003,2011,2012. 这个词同样适用于其他具有冲突和对立身份的第二代移民，他们认为他们的祖国是他们父母的出生国，而不是他们出生和长大的那个国家。
地理代写|GEOGRAPHY代考|SKILLED MIGRATION, THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY, AND RETURN/REPEAT MIGRATION
在过去二十年的全球人才竞赛中，越来越多的国家推行刺激创新和创业的政策，走在知识经济的前沿，并确保竞争力。这是一场比赛1因为国内劳动力无法立即满足所寻求的专业知识和能力，而需要从全球劳动力市场招聘。高技能或知识移民是满足此类短期短缺的现成群体，尤其是在老龄化社会和劳动力市场不灵活的情况下。为了吸引高技术移民，各国开始修改政策、制定新战略或启动新政策，例如灵活的录取标准和有吸引力的居留途径。2
技术移民通常受过高等教育，即至少接受过两年的正规大学教育。有时，定义技术移民的是职业，每个东道国都有一份详细的清单可供选择。一些政府在定义技术移民签发签证时同时使用教育和职业。技术移民的一个子类别是从东道国大学毕业的国际学生。东道国了解它们的价值后，制定了新的条款来保留它们。
医务人员、科学家、学者、管理人员、专家和投资者都属于熟练的范畴。科学、技术、工程和数学小号吨和米专业在技术人员中的需求最高，流动性最高。STEM 包括计算机科学家、IT、生物学家和科学发明家。有趣的是，在大衰退期间和之后，对高技能人才的需求仍在持续，政策并未变得更加严格从一种一世C和在一种一种nd从一世米米和r米一种nn2016.
技术移民的论点强调，在生产过程中，由于专业化，技术移民并不是技术本地人的紧密替代品，而是对技能较低的人员和有形资本的补充。因此很难取代当地人，工资也不太可能受到影响。技术移民通过创新和创造力带来知识、提高生产力和经济增长，他们提高生活水平，创造就业机会，为系统做出积极的净财政贡献，并更快地融入劳动力市场C这ns吨一种n吨2014. 类似的论点适用于循环迁移从一世米米和r米一种nn2014. 库尔蒂特等人。2017找到荷兰技术移民三赢的证据。
地理代写|GEOGRAPHY代考|THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF MIGRATION MOVES
有几种理论可以回答人们为什么要搬家的问题。社会科学中的每个学科都有自己的理论，这些理论并不总是兼容的。8然而，很少有理论允许返回和重复迁移。9在这里，我概述了设想返回/重复迁移、预测返回者的自我选择并表明它们可以相互补充的相关理论。
新古典经济学下ñ和决策者是一个拥有完整信息的理性个体，他们根据工资差异在一段时间内进行成本效益分析，并在预期贴现净回报的现值为正时采取行动。假设同质收入，效用或收入在约束条件下最大化。在国外居住的时间也最大化，打算永久定居并带家人。将移民视为对人类生产力的投资，人力资本理论HC吨可以预测移民的特征。人们搬到他们的人力资本得到最好回报的地方。
虽然 NE 解释了初始迁移和二次/后续迁移，但它认为返回和重复迁移是不合理的，而不是收入最大化，在其他条件不变的情况下。根据定义，海归是那些在东道国没有成功的人，他们在国外获得的人力资本并不总是可以转移的。因为移民长期在东道国，他们不会在失败后立即返回，而是会留下并花时间寻找新的或更好的工作。海归将在所有经济结果中被负面选择C这ns吨一种n吨一种nd米一种ss和是2002，并且可能在诸如能力或毅力等不可观察的因素中被否定选择。
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