如果你也在 怎样代写geography这个学科遇到相关的难题，请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。geography是一个科学领域，致力于研究地球和行星的土地、特征、居民和现象。第一个使用γεωγραφία这个词的人是埃拉托色尼（公元前276-194年）。地理学是一门包罗万象的学科，它寻求对地球及其人类和自然的复杂性的理解–不仅仅是物体在哪里，还包括它们是如何变化和形成的。
geography通常被定义为两个分支：人文地理学和自然地理学。人文地理学关注的是对人及其社区、文化、经济的研究，以及通过研究他们与空间和地点的关系，与环境的相互作用。自然地理学关注的是对自然环境中的过程和模式的研究，如大气圈、水圈、生物圈和地圈。
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非线性方法 nonlinear method functional analysis
变分法 Calculus of Variations
地理代写|geography代考|Background
In order to study the role of migration in demographic change, we need to have a basic understanding of concepts, data, processing and estimation and outputs (Raymer et al. 2015). Here, concepts refer to particular types of population or migration statistics, such as usual residents and people present in countries with foreign citizenship. Data are any information gathered about the population of interest and its movements, usually obtained from censuses, surveys or administrative registers. Processing and estimation refer to data cleaning, imputation, combining two or more information sources through matching or proportioning and statistical modelling. Outputs are the published statistics.
The concepts of population may vary depending on the needs of the user. However, all types of population can be related to the actual population at time $t$ in location $i$. Likewise, concepts of migration can be related to the movement of all people in and out of location $i$ between two-time points. To estimate particular populations, therefore, one must consider the types of entries and exits (including births and deaths, respectively) between time points $t-n$ and $t$, where $n$ refers to the width of the time interval (e.g. days, months or years). There are various data sources that can be relied on to capture particular populations present in location $i$ at time $t$ in statistical form. The geographies are obtained from the location attributes linked to these data sources. From the data sources, attributes of the population and migrants also can be obtained, where the main attributes are often age and sex. Processing is required to match the concepts to the data. In some cases, estimation is required to combine data or to include auxiliary information. The result of the data processing and estimation is the outputs. Due to time, budget and available data constraints, the outputs rarely consider all the different types of population present in location $i$ and at time $t$. More often, they include just one type of population, such as those considered to be usual residents.4.2 Background
In order to study the role of migration in demographic change, we need to have a basic understanding of concepts, data, processing and estimation and outputs (Raymer et al. 2015). Here, concepts refer to particular types of population or migration statistics, such as usual residents and people present in countries with foreign citizenship. Data are any information gathered about the population of interest and its movements, usually obtained from censuses, surveys or administrative registers. Processing and estimation refer to data cleaning, imputation, combining two or more information sources through matching or proportioning and statistical modelling. Outputs are the published statistics.
The concepts of population may vary depending on the needs of the user. However, all types of population can be related to the actual population at time $t$ in location $i$. Likewise, concepts of migration can be related to the movement of all people in and out of location $i$ between two-time points. To estimate particular populations, therefore, one must consider the types of entries and exits (including births and deaths, respectively) between time points $t-n$ and $t$, where $n$ refers to the width of the time interval (e.g. days, months or years). There are various data sources that can be relied on to capture particular populations present in location $i$ at time $t$ in statistical form. The geographies are obtained from the location attributes linked to these data sources. From the data sources, attributes of the population and migrants also can be obtained, where the main attributes are often age and sex. Processing is required to match the concepts to the data. In some cases, estimation is required to combine data or to include auxiliary information. The result of the data processing and estimation is the outputs. Due to time, budget and available data constraints, the outputs rarely consider all the different types of population present in location $i$ and at time $t$. More often, they include just one type of population, such as those considered to be usual residents.
地理代写|geography代考|Theories
In thinking about the demography of migration, we review two theories that emphasise the fundamental relationship between population change and migration processes. The first is the mobility transition theory by Zelinsky (1971; see also recent review by Skeldon 2018). The second is the life course theory (Kulu and Milewski 2007; Willekens 1999). We provide brief overviews of both theories and their importance in understanding migration patterns. There are a host of other migration theories originating in other disciplines that are not treated here. These include, for example, neoclassical economic (“push-pull”) theories, dual labour market theory, migration network theory and cumulative causation (see Massey et al. 1993). While these theories are important for understanding the processes and motivations of migration, they do not emphasise the demographic aspects that are central to this chapter’s purpose.
Zelinsky’s (1971) mobility transition theory is tied with the demographic (vital) transition theory in that mobility and migration patterns are affected by changes in the economic development or modernisation process of a country. Five phases of the mobility transition linked to demographic and economic development are included:
- Pre-modern traditional society which exhibits low migration or mobility;
- Early transitional society which experiences large scale rural to urban migration, emigration to other countries, immigration of skilled workers, and increased mobility in general;
- Late transitional society which experiences a slowing down of rural to urban migration and emigration but continues to experience increases in mobility and internal migration;
- Advanced society which experiences stable and high levels of mobility and internal migration and net immigration of unskilled workers and
- Future super-advanced society, which exhibits lower levels of mobility and internal migration with some control of its internal and international movements.
地理代写|GEOGRAPHY代考|Methods and Modelling
In order to fully understand the consequences of internal and international population movements, researchers and policymakers need to overcome the limitations of the currently available data sources on population stocks and demographic components of change, including inconsistencies in data availability, definitions and quality. This topic of research is important for most countries in the world. For example, in Australia, the main source of numbers on immigration and emigration comes from arrival and departure cards collected at major entry points with uncertainty about the destinations and origins within the country. For internal migration, the public have access to census place of current residence by place of residence one year or five years ago, however, the Australian Bureau of Statistics relies on the Medicare health registration data for its population estimates, which are not publically available in detailed form.
Demographic estimation techniques and statistical modelling may be used to reconcile the measurement differences between the conceptual framework and the data, and to overcome other limitations, such as inadequate demographic or geographic detail and irregularities in the observed data caused by random or samplebased variation. Rogers et al. (2010) provide a useful strategy for estimation based on smoothing, imposing and inferring migration patterns. Smoothing limits the effect of randomness on the age, spatial or temporal patterns of migration caused by natural variation or variation due to insufficient sample size. For a contingency table of migration events, this may involve (i) fitting a line or curve to a particular pattern or (ii) removing higher order interaction effects in a log-linear model. Imposing refers to the borrowing of age, spatial or birthplace patterns from other areas or higher order patterns, e.g. when a national level age profile of immigration is used to represent the age profile of immigration of a particular geographic area not captured adequately in the reported data. Inferring refers to the borrowing of age, spatial or birthplace patterns from auxiliary sources that serve as useful proxies for the particular demographic pattern that requires estimation.
geography代写
地理代写|GEOGRAPHY代考|BACKGROUND
为了研究移民在人口变化中的作用，我们需要对概念、数据、处理和估计以及输出有一个基本的了解R一种是米和r和吨一种l.2015. 在这里，概念是指特定类型的人口或移民统计数据，例如常住居民和拥有外国公民身份的国家的人。数据是收集的有关感兴趣的人口及其流动的任何信息，通常从人口普查、调查或行政登记处获得。处理和估计是指数据清理、插补、通过匹配或比例和统计建模组合两个或多个信息源。输出是公布的统计数据。
人口的概念可能会因用户的需要而异。但是，所有类型的人口都可以与当时的实际人口相关吨在位置一世. 同样，迁移的概念可能与所有人进出该地点的移动有关一世两个时间点之间。因此，要估计特定人群，必须考虑进入和退出的类型一世nCl在d一世nGb一世r吨Hs一种ndd和一种吨Hs,r和sp和C吨一世在和l是时间点之间吨−n和吨， 在哪里n指时间间隔的宽度和.G.d一种是s,米这n吨Hs这r是和一种rs. 可以依靠各种数据源来捕获该位置存在的特定人群一世有时吨以统计形式。地理位置是从链接到这些数据源的位置属性中获得的。从数据源中也可以获得人口和流动人口的属性，其中主要属性通常是年龄和性别。需要进行处理以将概念与数据匹配。在某些情况下，需要进行估计以组合数据或包含辅助信息。数据处理和估计的结果是输出。由于时间、预算和可用数据的限制，输出很少考虑该地点存在的所有不同类型的人口一世并且有时吨. 更多的时候，他们只包括一种类型的人口，例如那些被认为是普通居民的人口。4.2 背景
为了研究移民在人口变化中的作用，我们需要对概念、数据、处理和估计有一个基本的了解，以及输出R一种是米和r和吨一种l.2015. 在这里，概念是指特定类型的人口或移民统计数据，例如常住居民和拥有外国公民身份的国家的人。数据是收集的有关感兴趣的人口及其流动的任何信息，通常从人口普查、调查或行政登记处获得。处理和估计是指数据清理、插补、通过匹配或比例和统计建模组合两个或多个信息源。输出是公布的统计数据。
人口的概念可能会因用户的需要而异。但是，所有类型的人口都可以与当时的实际人口相关吨在位置一世. 同样，迁移的概念可能与所有人进出该地点的移动有关一世两个时间点之间。因此，要估计特定人群，必须考虑进入和退出的类型一世nCl在d一世nGb一世r吨Hs一种ndd和一种吨Hs,r和sp和C吨一世在和l是时间点之间吨−n和吨， 在哪里n指时间间隔的宽度和.G.d一种是s,米这n吨Hs这r是和一种rs. 可以依靠各种数据源来捕获该位置存在的特定人群一世有时吨以统计形式。地理位置是从链接到这些数据源的位置属性中获得的。从数据源中也可以获得人口和流动人口的属性，其中主要属性通常是年龄和性别。需要进行处理以将概念与数据匹配。在某些情况下，需要进行估计以组合数据或包含辅助信息。数据处理和估计的结果是输出。由于时间、预算和可用数据的限制，输出很少考虑该地点存在的所有不同类型的人口一世并且有时吨. 更常见的是，它们只包括一种类型的人口，例如那些被认为是普通居民的人口。
地理代写|GEOGRAPHY代考|THEORIES
在思考移民人口学时，我们回顾了两个强调人口变化和移民过程之间基本关系的理论。首先是泽林斯基的迁移率转变理论1971;s和和一种ls这r和C和n吨r和在一世和在b是小号ķ和ld这n2018. 二是生命历程理论ķ在l在一种nd米一世l和在sķ一世2007;在一世ll和ķ和ns1999. 我们简要概述了这两种理论及其在理解迁移模式中的重要性。还有许多其他起源于其他学科的迁移理论在这里没有讨论。例如，这些包括新古典经济学“p在sH−p在ll”理论、双重劳动力市场理论、迁移网络理论和累积因果关系s和和米一种ss和是和吨一种l.1993. 虽然这些理论对于理解移民的过程和动机很重要，但它们并未强调对本章目的至关重要的人口因素。
泽林斯基1971流动性转变理论与人口在一世吨一种l转型理论认为，流动性和迁移模式受到国家经济发展或现代化进程变化的影响。包括与人口和经济发展相关的流动性过渡的五个阶段：
- 迁移率低或流动性低的前现代传统社会；
- 早期的过渡社会，经历了大规模的农村向城市迁移、移民到其他国家、技术工人的移民以及总体上流动性的增加；
- 转型后期社会，农村到城市的移民和移民放缓，但流动性和国内移民继续增加；
- 经历稳定和高水平的流动性和内部迁移以及非技术工人和净移民的先进社会
- 未来的超发达社会，其流动性和内部迁移水平较低，对其内部和国际流动有一定的控制。
地理代写|GEOGRAPHY代考|METHODS AND MODELLING
为了充分了解国内和国际人口流动的后果，研究人员和决策者需要克服目前可用的关于人口存量和变化的人口组成部分的数据源的局限性，包括数据可用性、定义和质量的不一致。这一研究课题对世界上大多数国家都很重要。例如，在澳大利亚，移民人数的主要来源是在主要入境点收集的入境卡和出境卡，而该国境内的目的地和来源不确定。对于国内迁移，公众可以通过一年或五年前的居住地获得当前居住地的人口普查地点，但是，
人口统计估计技术和统计建模可用于协调概念框架和数据之间的测量差异，并克服其他限制，例如人口统计或地理细节不足以及由随机或基于样本的变化引起的观测数据的不规则性。罗杰斯等人。2010为基于平滑、强加和推断迁移模式的估计提供有用的策略。平滑限制了随机性对迁移的年龄、空间或时间模式的影响，这些迁移是由自然变化或样本量不足引起的变化引起的。对于迁移事件的列联表，这可能涉及一世将直线或曲线拟合到特定模式或一世一世消除对数线性模型中的高阶交互效应。强加是指从其他地区或更高阶模式借用年龄、空间或出生地模式，例如，当使用国家层面的移民年龄概况来表示未在报告数据中充分捕获的特定地理区域的移民年龄概况时. 推断是指从辅助来源借用年龄、空间或出生地模式，作为需要估计的特定人口模式的有用代理。
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