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经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代写|Conclusion
At the end of the $1940 \mathrm{~s}$, the Cowles Commission became the subject of increasing critiques. The growing wave of anti-communist sentiment made it more difficult to defend an analysis that extolled the virtues of central planning against the ills of capitalism. Milton Friedman returned to Chicago, and his critiques of Lange’s works as well as Klein’s empirical approach were an important factor in the move to Yale of the Cowles Commission a decade later. ${ }^{1}$ A new research program that mobilized the forces of the Cowles Commission was the research into rational choice theory, which was pursued at the expense of the macro-economic approach advocated by the previous generation.
Patinkin became emblematic of these changes; although he was connected to Klein, Lange, Marschak and the Cowles Commission through his time at Chicago, $^{2}$ he closed the door to the radical interpretations of instability that had been developed by Lange and Klein, which is why we consider them an apex of the research that had begun some fifteen years before. This did not mean that the research on unstable processes was completely ignored, a point we make further below in this conclusion.
Patinkin had originally failed to convince the members of the Cowles Commission with his “theory of compromise,” and he shifted to an approach of disequilibrium that he developed for several decades and that produced his classic Money, interest and prices $(1956 ; 1965) .{ }^{3}$ Examining his impact on the Cowles Commission from the vantage point of the problem of instability leads us to reconsider his role; while it has been argued that for Patinkin, only two options were available for Keynesians to demonstrate that the economy could be unstable, either through reducing the Keynesian theory to “a demonstration of instability,” or building “a model based on price rigidities” (Rubin, 2005: 67), we have shown that these two options were in fact entirely consistent in the works of Lange and Klein, who both concluded that only rigid wages were able to stabilize an unstable economy. As it turns out, Patinkin owed a debt to both Lange and Klein, even though he distanced himself from the political visions embedded in their works.
经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代写|Conclusion
In his 1948 American Economic Review article “price flexibility and full employment,” the title of which can only remind the reader of Lange’s monograph, Patinkin argued that the problems he tackled had been debated for the last ten years between the Keynesians and the “Classicals,” and he suggested to summarize the arguments on both sides “to analyze the present state of the debate” (Patinkin, 1948: 543). Starting from a static point of view, Patinkin then clearly established that the problem is not only one of consistency, that is, of the existence of a position of full employment in a perfectly competitive economy, but also one of stability, and he underlined the necessity to find some automatic mechanisms that exists to bring back the economy to its equilibrium position in order to defend correctly the classical position (Patinkin, 1948: 547). He also recognized that this question was made clear by the mathematical analysis of dynamical systems initiated by Samuelson and Lange (Patinkin, 1948: $560-561)$.
Patinkin’s summary of the arguments of the debate further match our account of the last chapters, as he underlined the role of expectations in the destabilization of the economy: the Pigou effect can indeed be slowed down by at least two factors, which are expectations and the amount by which prices must fall. For the former, Patinkin noted that it was one important point in Keynes (1936), and added in a footnote the works of Hicks (1939) and Lange (1944). The interaction of these factors had the consequence for him that “[t]he end result of letting the Pigou effect work itself out may be a disastrous deflationary spiral, continuing for several years without ever reaching any equilibrium position” (Patinkin, 1948: 559), terms that remind of Klein’s own interpretation of economic instability. In fact, Patinkin also argued, as Klein had done before him, that the Pigou effect was not verified empirically. ${ }^{4}$ Thus Patinkin was well-aware of the different arguments presented in the last chapters on the problem of full employment equilibrium. In Patinkin (1948), he suggested a typology of the different Keynesian interpretations which was grounded in the separation between existence and stability. He argued that the first type of response was that of the “radicals,” who stated that unemployment stemmed from the inconsistency of the model, due to the absence of equilibrium for a positive value of the interest rate. The second type of response resided in the instability of the competitive economy, advocated by Lange or Klein. But for Patinkin, neither of these positions was tenable in that they did not demonstrate the possibility of underemployment equilibrium in a perfectly competitive economy. He himself advocated a third way, that would reconcile in his mind the equilibrium position with the possibility of unemployment. In doing so, Patinkin strayed away from Samuelson’s argument which linked together stability and existence with the correspondence principle. More importantly, he was responsible for a shift away from the idea that statics and dynamics had to be examined together, and unlike Samuelson, Patinkin took full employment stability for granted.
The synthesis he proposed came to represent the mainstream of (macro)economic thinking after the war. Following Marschak and Koopmans, Patinkin shifted away from an empirical approach toward a methodology based on the specification of economic behaviors. This is apparent in early drafts as well as in the report of the conference of the Econometric Society in Atlantic City in January 1947, where he was critical of the Samuelson-Lange approach to dynamic economics, where adjustment speeds, whatever the type of mechanism considered, are not related to any specific behavior. ${ }^{5}$
宏观经济学代写
经济代写|宏观经济学代写MACROECONOMICS代写|CONCLUSION
在结束时1940 s,考尔斯委员会成为越来越多批评的主题。日益高涨的反共情绪浪潮使得为一种颂扬中央计划优点对抗资本主义弊病的分析辩护变得更加困难。米尔顿弗里德曼回到芝加哥,他对兰格作品的批评以及克莱因的实证方法是十年后考尔斯委员会转投耶鲁大学的一个重要因素。1调动考尔斯委员会力量的一项新研究计划是对理性选择理论的研究,该研究以牺牲上一代倡导的宏观经济方法为代价。
帕廷金成为这些变化的象征;尽管他在芝加哥期间与 Klein、Lange、Marschak 和 Cowles 委员会有联系,2他为朗格和克莱因提出的对不稳定性的激进解释关闭了大门,这就是为什么我们认为它们是大约十五年前开始的研究的顶点。这并不意味着完全忽略了对不稳定过程的研究,我们在下面的结论中进一步说明了这一点。
帕廷金最初未能用他的“妥协理论”说服考尔斯委员会的成员,他转向了一种他几十年来发展起来的不均衡方法,并产生了他的经典货币、利息和价格(1956;1965).3从不稳定问题的角度审视他对考尔斯委员会的影响,我们会重新考虑他的角色;虽然有人认为,对于帕廷金来说,凯恩斯主义者只有两种选择来证明经济可能不稳定,要么将凯恩斯理论简化为“不稳定的证明”,要么建立“基于价格刚性的模型”R在b一世n,2005:67,我们已经证明这两种选择实际上在兰格和克莱因的作品中是完全一致的,他们都得出结论,只有刚性工资才能稳定不稳定的经济。事实证明,帕廷金欠兰格和克莱因的债,尽管他与他们作品中嵌入的政治愿景保持距离。
经济代写|宏观经济学代写MACROECONOMICS代写|CONCLUSION
在他 1948 年的《美国经济评论》文章“价格灵活性和充分就业”中,其标题只能让读者想起朗格的专着,帕廷金认为,他解决的问题在过去十年中一直在凯恩斯主义者和“古典主义者”之间争论不休。 ,”他建议总结双方的论点“分析辩论的现状”磷一个吨一世nķ一世n,1948:543. 帕廷金从静态的角度出发,明确指出问题不仅在于一致性问题,即完全竞争经济中是否存在充分就业的位置,还在于稳定性问题,他强调了有必要找到一些存在的自动机制来使经济回到均衡状态,以正确地捍卫经典状态磷一个吨一世nķ一世n,1948:547. 他还认识到,由 Samuelson 和 Lange 发起的对动力系统的数学分析清楚地说明了这个问题。磷一个吨一世nķ一世n,1948:$560−561$.
帕廷金对辩论论点的总结进一步与我们对最后几章的描述相吻合,因为他强调了预期在经济不稳定中的作用:确实可以通过至少两个因素来减缓庇古效应,即预期和预期。价格必须下降的量。对于前者,帕廷金指出这是凯恩斯的一个重要观点1936,并在脚注中添加了希克斯的作品1939和朗格1944. 这些因素的相互作用对他产生了这样的影响:“吨让庇古效应自行发挥作用的最终结果可能是一场灾难性的通货紧缩螺旋,持续数年而从未达到任何平衡位置”磷一个吨一世nķ一世n,1948:559,这些术语让人想起克莱因自己对经济不稳定的解释。事实上,正如克莱因在他之前所做的那样,帕廷金也争辩说庇古效应没有得到经验验证。4因此,帕廷金很清楚最后几章提出的关于充分就业均衡问题的不同论点。在帕廷金1948,他提出了不同凯恩斯主义解释的类型学,其基础是存在与稳定性之间的分离。他认为第一种反应是“激进分子”的反应,他们说失业源于模型的不一致,因为利率正值缺乏均衡。第二种反应存在于竞争经济的不稳定性,由兰格或克莱因提倡。但对帕廷金来说,这些立场都站不住脚,因为它们没有证明完全竞争经济中就业不足均衡的可能性。他本人主张第三种方式,即在他的头脑中调和平衡位置与失业的可能性。在这样做,帕廷金偏离了萨缪尔森将稳定性和存在与对应原则联系在一起的论点。更重要的是,他负责改变静态和动态必须一起检查的想法,而且与萨缪尔森不同,帕廷金认为充分就业的稳定性是理所当然的。
他提出的合成代表了主流的米一个Cr○战后的经济思想。继 Marschak 和 Koopmans 之后,Patinkin 从实证方法转向基于经济行为规范的方法论。这在早期的草稿以及 1947 年 1 月大西洋城计量经济学会会议的报告中很明显,他在报告中批评了动态经济学的 Samuelson-Lange 方法,其中调整速度,无论考虑何种类型的机制, 与任何特定行为无关。5
经济代写|宏观经济学代写Macroeconomics代写 请认准UprivateTA™. UprivateTA™为您的留学生涯保驾护航。
微观经济学代写
微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。my-assignmentexpert™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在数学Mathematics作业代写方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的数学Mathematics代写服务。我们的专家在图论代写Graph Theory代写方面经验极为丰富,各种图论代写Graph Theory相关的作业也就用不着 说。
线性代数代写
线性代数是数学的一个分支,涉及线性方程,如:线性图,如:以及它们在向量空间和通过矩阵的表示。线性代数是几乎所有数学领域的核心。
博弈论代写
现代博弈论始于约翰-冯-诺伊曼(John von Neumann)提出的两人零和博弈中的混合策略均衡的观点及其证明。冯-诺依曼的原始证明使用了关于连续映射到紧凑凸集的布劳威尔定点定理,这成为博弈论和数学经济学的标准方法。在他的论文之后,1944年,他与奥斯卡-莫根斯特恩(Oskar Morgenstern)共同撰写了《游戏和经济行为理论》一书,该书考虑了几个参与者的合作游戏。这本书的第二版提供了预期效用的公理理论,使数理统计学家和经济学家能够处理不确定性下的决策。
微积分代写
微积分,最初被称为无穷小微积分或 “无穷小的微积分”,是对连续变化的数学研究,就像几何学是对形状的研究,而代数是对算术运算的概括研究一样。
它有两个主要分支,微分和积分;微分涉及瞬时变化率和曲线的斜率,而积分涉及数量的累积,以及曲线下或曲线之间的面积。这两个分支通过微积分的基本定理相互联系,它们利用了无限序列和无限级数收敛到一个明确定义的极限的基本概念 。
计量经济学代写
什么是计量经济学?
计量经济学是统计学和数学模型的定量应用,使用数据来发展理论或测试经济学中的现有假设,并根据历史数据预测未来趋势。它对现实世界的数据进行统计试验,然后将结果与被测试的理论进行比较和对比。
根据你是对测试现有理论感兴趣,还是对利用现有数据在这些观察的基础上提出新的假设感兴趣,计量经济学可以细分为两大类:理论和应用。那些经常从事这种实践的人通常被称为计量经济学家。
Matlab代写
MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习和应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。