经济代写|Theories of output and employment 宏观经济学代写
经济代写
Much like the contending theories of money discussed in the previous chapter, there are broadly two contending theories of output and employment. The first originates from J. B. Say and was developed further by Alfred Marshall and
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MACROECONOMICS
A. C. Pigou-and is found in a different form in the growth theory of Robert Solow (see Chapter 5). The second originates from the works of Michał Kalecki and John Maynard Keynes in the 20th century, although Kalecki’s viewpoint can be traced back to ideas which are found in Karl Marx.
Writing in the 19th century, Marx recognised that a competitive economy is prone to recurrent crises, of which a central contributing factor is underconsumption. Underconsumption arises from the capitalist logic of paying workers’ wages that are less in value than what they add to the process of to this, workers’ consumption is insufficient to validate the output produced, leading to unsold commodities and a (temporary) crisis. In the early 20th century, Rosa Luxemburg, working in the Marxian tradition, not only argued that the demand for output in capitalist societies comes from non-capitalist societies, but also recognised the problem of aggregate demand insufficiency, As she writes in her 1913 book The Accumulation of Capital,
[Marx’s scheme] does indeed permit of crises but only because of a lack of proportion within production, because of a defective social control over the productive process. It precludes, however, the deep and fundamental antagonism between the capacity to consume and the capacity to produce in a capitalist society, a conflict resulting from the very accumulation of capital which periodically bursts out in crises…. (pp. 346-7)
And Kalecki arrived at his macroeconomic theory after having seriously engaged with the works of Marx and Luxemburg. Although both Kalecki (in 1933) and Keynes (in 1936) independently developed a similar theory of output and employment, in opposition to the marginalist one, we shall refer to them singularly as the Keynesian theory of output and employment. Elements of this theory have been identified in the works of classical economists such as Sismondi and Malthus; once you complete this section, as an exercise, consult their original texts, if possible, and find out which concepts in Sismondi and Malthus bear some affinities with the Keynesian theory.
Let us now list the assumptions common to the marginalist and Keynesian theories of output and employment: $(a)$ the object of study is a competitive economy and (b) the economy operates at a given level of productive capacity. The reasons for studying a competitive economy has already been provided in Section 1.4. In a competitive economy, remember that firms are profit maximisers-who are always on the lookout for new markets and technologies 66 6 technological progress. The assumption of a given level of productive capacity is relaxed in the next chapter when we study economic growth. the state of technology. The second assumption also implies that there is no capacity is expressed by the total number of existing plants, machinery and productive capacity’ needs some explanation. Thinle of your local economy or the Indian economy. Suppose that no new coal or solar plants are constructed and no new machinery, such as water turbines or wheat threshers, are added; the capacity of that economy to produce does not undergo any change. Its productive as improved ways of operating with existing markets and technologies, bum In textbooks, the assumption of a given productive capacity is often referred to as a short-run situation and the long run refers to a situation where productive capacity can undergo changes. And in this manner, macroeconomics is characterised as a short-run study, while economic growth studies the longrun dynamics. However, since short run is often also used to refer to a time
与前一章讨论的相互竞争的货币理论非常相似,产出和就业理论大致存在两种相互竞争的理论。第一个起源于 J. B. Say 并由 Alfred Marshall 和
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宏观经济
A. C.庇古——并且在罗伯特·索洛的增长理论中以不同的形式出现(见第 5 章)。第二个起源于 20 世纪 Michał Kalecki 和 John Maynard Keynes 的著作,尽管 Kalecki 的观点可以追溯到卡尔马克思的思想。
马克思在 19 世纪写作时认识到,竞争性经济容易出现反复出现的危机,其中一个核心因素是消费不足。消费不足源于资本主义逻辑,即支付工人工资的价值低于他们在此过程中增加的价值,工人的消费不足以验证所生产的产出,导致未售出的商品和(暂时的)危机。在 20 世纪初,按照马克思主义传统工作的罗莎·卢森堡不仅认为资本主义社会对产出的需求来自非资本主义社会,而且还认识到总需求不足的问题,正如她在 1913 年的著作中所写的那样资本积累,
[马克思的方案]确实允许危机,但这只是因为生产中缺乏比例,因为社会对生产过程的控制有缺陷。然而,它排除了资本主义社会中消费能力和生产能力之间深刻而根本的对立,这种冲突是由资本积累本身引起的,并在危机中周期性爆发……(第 346-7 页) )
卡莱茨基在认真研究了马克思和卢森堡的著作之后,得出了他的宏观经济理论。尽管 Kalecki(1933 年)和凯恩斯(1936 年)都独立发展了类似的产出和就业理论,但与边缘主义理论相反,我们将它们单独称为凯恩斯的产出和就业理论。这一理论的要素已在西斯蒙第和马尔萨斯等古典经济学家的著作中得到确认;完成本节后,作为练习,如果可能,请查阅他们的原文,并找出西斯蒙第和马尔萨斯的哪些概念与凯恩斯主义理论有一些相似之处。
现在让我们列出边际主义和凯恩斯主义产出和就业理论的共同假设:$(a)$ 研究的对象是竞争经济,并且 (b) 经济在给定的生产能力水平上运行。 1.4 节已经提供了研究竞争经济的原因。在竞争性经济中,请记住,企业是利润最大化者——他们总是在寻找新的市场和技术 66 6 技术进步。下一章研究经济增长时,对给定生产能力水平的假设放宽了。技术状态。第二个假设也意味着没有产能是由现有工厂、机器和生产能力的总数来表示的,需要一些解释。不考虑当地经济或印度经济。假设没有建造新的煤炭或太阳能发电厂,也没有增加新的机械,例如水轮机或小麦脱粒机;该经济体的生产能力没有发生任何变化。它的生产力是改进现有市场和技术的运作方式,但在教科书中,假设给定的生产能力通常被称为短期情况,而长期是指生产能力可以发生变化的情况。以这种方式,宏观经济学被描述为一项短期研究,而经济增长研究的是长期动态。但是,由于短期运行也经常用于指代时间
经济代考
宏观经济学,是以国民经济总过程的活动为研究对象,主要考察就业总水平、国民总收入等经济总量,因此,宏观经济学也被称做就业理论或收入理论。 宏观经济学研究的是经济资源的利用问题,包括国民收入决定理论、就业理论、通货膨胀理论、经济周期理论、经济增长理论、财政与货币政策。
其他相关科目课程代写:组合学Combinatorics集合论Set Theory概率论Probability组合生物学Combinatorial Biology组合化学Combinatorial Chemistry组合数据分析Combinatorial Data Analysis
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宏观经济学是经济学的一个分支,它研究的是一个整体经济,即市场或其他大规模运作的系统是如何运作的。宏观经济学研究经济范围内的现象,如通货膨胀价格水平经济增长,国民收入,国内生产总值,以及失业 .
计量经济学代考
计量经济学是以一定的经济理论和统计资料为基础,运用数学、统计学方法与电脑技术,以建立经济计量模型为主要手段,定量分析研究具有随机性特性的经济变量关系的一门经济学学科。 主要内容包括理论计量经济学和应用经济计量学。 理论经济计量学主要研究如何运用、改造和发展数理统计的方法,使之成为经济关系测定的特殊方法。
相对论代考
相对论(英語:Theory of relativity)是关于时空和引力的理论,主要由愛因斯坦创立,依其研究对象的不同可分为狭义相对论和广义相对论。 相对论和量子力学的提出给物理学带来了革命性的变化,它们共同奠定了现代物理学的基础。
编码理论代写
编码理论(英语:Coding theory)是研究编码的性质以及它们在具体应用中的性能的理论。编码用于数据压缩、加密、纠错,最近也用于网络编码中。不同学科(如信息论、电机工程学、数学、语言学以及计算机科学)都研究编码是为了设计出高效、可靠的数据传输方法。这通常需要去除冗余并校正(或检测)数据传输中的错误。
编码共分四类:[1]
数据压缩和前向错误更正可以一起考虑。
复分析代考
学习易分析也已经很冬年了,七七八人的也续了圧少的书籍和论文。略作总结工作,方便后来人学 Đ参考。
复分析是一门历史悠久的学科,主要是研究解析函数,亚纯函数在复球面的性质。下面一昭这 些基本内容。
(1) 提到复变函数 ,首先需要了解复数的基本性左和四则运算规则。怎么样计算复数的平方根, 极坐标与 $x y$ 坐标的转换,复数的模之类的。这些在高中的时候囸本上都会学过。
(2) 复变函数自然是在复平面上来研究问题,此时数学分析里面的求导数之尖的运算就会很自然的 引入到复平面里面,从而引出解析函数的定义。那/研究解析函数的性贡就是关楗所在。最关键的 地方就是所谓的Cauchy一Riemann公式,这个是判断一个函数是否是解析函数的关键所在。
(3) 明白解析函数的定义以及性质之后,就会把数学分析里面的曲线积分 $a$ 的概念引入复分析中, 定义几乎是一致的。在引入了闭曲线和曲线积分之后,就会有出现复分析中的重要的定理: Cauchy 积分公式。 这个是易分析的第一个重要定理。