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经济代写|计量经济学代写Econometrics代考|Random Variables and Their Distributions

如果你也在 怎样代写计量经济学Econometrics是将统计方法应用于经济数据,以赋予经济关系以经验内容。更确切地说,它是 “基于理论和观察的同步发展,通过适当的推理方法对实际经济现象进行定量分析”。 一本经济学入门教科书将计量经济学描述为允许经济学家 “从堆积如山的数据中筛选出简单的关系”。

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经济代写|计量经济学代写Econometrics代考|Random Variables and Their Distributions

经济代写|计量经济学代写Econometrics代考|Random Variables and Vectors

In broad terms, a random variable is a numerical translation of the outcomes of a statistical experiment. For example, flip a fair coin once. Then the sample space is $\Omega={\mathrm{H}, \mathrm{T}}$, where $\mathrm{H}$ stands for heads and T stands for tails. The $\sigma$-algebra involved is $\mathscr{F}={\Omega, \emptyset,{\mathrm{H}},{\mathrm{T}}}$, and the corresponding probability measure is defined by $P({\mathrm{H}})=P({\mathrm{~T}}})=1 / 2$. Now define the function $X(\omega)=1$ if $\omega=\mathrm{H}, X(\omega)=0$ if $\omega=\mathrm{T}$. Then $X$ is a random variable that takes the value 1 with probability $1 / 2$ and the value 0 with probability $1 / 2$ :
$$
\begin{aligned}
&P(X=1) \stackrel{\text { (shorthand notation) }}{=} P({\omega \in \Omega: X(\omega)=1})=P({\mathrm{H}})=1 / 2, \
&P(X=0) \stackrel{\text { (shorthand notation) }}{=} P({\omega \in \Omega: X(\omega)=0})=P({\mathrm{~T}})=1 / 2 .
\end{aligned}
$$

Moreover, for an arbitrary Borel set $B$ we have $P(X \in B)=$
where, again, $P(X \in B)$ is a shorthand notation ${ }^{9}$ for $P({\omega \in \Omega: X(\omega) \in B})$.
In this particular case, the set ${\omega \in \Omega: X(\omega) \in B}$ is automatically equal to one of the elements of $\mathscr{F}$, and therefore the probability $P(X \in B)=$ $P({\omega \in \Omega: X(\omega) \in B})$ is well-defined. In general, however, we need to confine the mappings $X: \Omega \rightarrow \mathbb{R}$ to those for which we can make probability statements about events of the type ${\omega \in \Omega: X(\omega) \in B}$, where $B$ is an arbitrary Borel set, which is only possible if these sets are members of $\mathscr{F}$ :

经济代写|计量经济学代写Econometrics代考|Distribution Functions

For Borel sets of the type $(-\infty, x]$, or $\times_{j=1}^{k}\left(-\infty, x_{j}\right]$ in the multivariate case, the value of the induced probability measure $\mu_{X}$ is called the distribution function:

Definition 1.11: Let $X$ be a random variable $(k=1)$ or a random vector $(k>1)$ with induced probability measure $\mu_{X}$. The function $F(x)=$ $\mu_{X}\left(\times_{j=1}^{k}\left(-\infty, x_{j}\right]\right), x=\left(x_{1}, \ldots, x_{k}\right)^{\mathrm{T}} \in \mathbb{R}^{k}$ is called the distribution function of $X$.
It follows from these definitions and Theorem $1.8$ that
Theorem 1.11: A distribution function of a random variable is always right continuous, that is, $\forall x \in \mathbb{R}, \lim {\delta \downarrow 0} F(x+\delta)=F(x)$, and monotonic nondecreasing, that is, $F\left(x{1}\right) \leq F\left(x_{2}\right)$ if $x_{1}{x \downarrow-\infty} F(x)=0$, $\lim {x \uparrow \infty} F(x)=1$. Proof: Exercise. However, a distribution function is not always left continuous. As a counterexample, consider the distribution function of the binomial $(n, p)$ distribution in Section 1.2.2. Recall that the corresponding probability space consists of sample space $\Omega={0,1,2, \ldots, n}$, the $\sigma$-algebra $\mathscr{F}$ of all subsets of $\Omega$, and probability measure $P({k})$ defined by (1.15). The random variable $X$ involved is defined as $X(k)=k$ with distribution function $F(x)=0 \quad$ for $\quad x<0$, $F(x)=\sum_{k \leq x} P({k})$ for $x \in[0, n]$, $F(x)=1 \quad$ for $x>n .$
Now, for example, let $x=1$. Then, for $0<\delta<1, F(1-\delta)=F(0)$, and $F(1+\delta)=F(1)$; hence, $\lim {\delta \downarrow 0} F(1+\delta)=F(1)$, but $\lim {\delta \downarrow 0} F(1-\delta)=$ $F(0)<F(1)$.

经济代写|计量经济学代写Econometrics代考|Random Variables and Their Distributions

计量经济学代写

经济代写|计量经济学代写ECONOMETRICS代考|RANDOM VARIABLES AND VECTORS

从广义上讲,随机变量是统计实验结果的数值转换。例如,抛一次公平的硬币。那么样本空间是Ω=H,吨, 在哪里H代表正面,T 代表反面。这σ- 涉及的代数是F=Ω,∅,H,吨, 对应的概率测度定义为P ({\ mathrm {H}}) = P (\ mathrm ~ T}}}) = 1/2P ({\ mathrm {H}}) = P (\ mathrm ~ T}}}) = 1/2. 现在定义函数X(ω)=1如果ω=H,X(ω)=0如果ω=吨. 然后X是一个随机变量,它以概率取值 11/2和概率值为 01/2:
磷(X=1)= (简写符号) 磷(ω∈Ω:X(ω)=1)=磷(H)=1/2, 磷(X=0)= (简写符号) 磷(ω∈Ω:X(ω)=0)=磷( 吨)=1/2.

此外,对于任意 Borel 集乙我们有磷(X∈乙)=
在哪里,再次,磷(X∈乙)是一种速记符号9为了磷(ω∈Ω:X(ω)∈乙).
在这种特殊情况下,集合ω∈Ω:X(ω)∈乙自动等于的元素之一F,因此概率磷(X∈乙)= 磷(ω∈Ω:X(ω)∈乙)是明确的。然而,一般来说,我们需要限制映射X:Ω→R对于那些我们可以对此类事件做出概率陈述的人ω∈Ω:X(ω)∈乙, 在哪里乙是一个任意的 Borel 集,只有当这些集合是F:

经济代写|计量经济学代写ECONOMETRICS代考|DISTRIBUTION FUNCTIONS

对于类型的 Borel 集(−∞,X], 或者×j=1ķ(−∞,Xj]在多变量情况下,诱导概率测度的值μX称为分布函数:

定义 1.11:让X是一个随机变量(ķ=1)或随机向量(ķ>1)用诱导概率测度μX. 功能F(X)= μX(×j=1ķ(−∞,Xj]),X=(X1,…,Xķ)吨∈Rķ称为分布函数X.
它遵循这些定义和定理1.8即
定理 1.11:随机变量的分布函数总是右连续的,即$\forall x \in \mathbb{R}, \lim {\delta \downarrow 0} F(x+\delta)=F(x)$, and monotonic nondecreasing, that is, $F\left(x{1}\right) \leq F\left(x_{2}\right)$ if $x_{1}{x \downarrow-\infty} F(x)=0$, $\lim {x \uparrow \infty} F(x)=1$. Proof: Exercise. However, a distribution function is not always left continuous. As a counterexample, consider the distribution function of the binomial $(n, p)$ distribution in Section 1.2.2. Recall that the corresponding probability space consists of sample space $\Omega={0,1,2, \ldots, n}$, the $\sigma$-algebra $\mathscr{F}$ of all subsets of $\Omega$, and probability measure $P({k})$ defined by (1.15). The random variable $X$ involved is defined as $X(k)=k$ with distribution function $F(x)=0 \quad$ for $\quad x<0$, $F(x)=\sum_{k \leq x} P({k})$ for $x \in[0, n]$, $F(x)=1 \quad$ for $x>n .$
Now, for example, let $x=1$. Then, for $0<\delta<1, F(1-\delta)=F(0)$, and $F(1+\delta)=F(1)$; hence, $\lim {\delta \downarrow 0} F(1+\delta)=F(1)$, but $\lim {\delta \downarrow 0} F(1-\delta)=$ $F(0)<F(1)$.

经济代写|计量经济学代写Econometrics代考

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