如果你也在 怎样代写博弈论Game theory 这个学科遇到相关的难题，请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。博弈论Game theory在20世纪50年代被许多学者广泛地发展。它在20世纪70年代被明确地应用于进化论，尽管类似的发展至少可以追溯到20世纪30年代。博弈论已被广泛认为是许多领域的重要工具。截至2020年，随着诺贝尔经济学纪念奖被授予博弈理论家保罗-米尔格伦和罗伯特-B-威尔逊，已有15位博弈理论家获得了诺贝尔经济学奖。约翰-梅纳德-史密斯因其对进化博弈论的应用而被授予克拉福德奖。

博弈论Game theory是对理性主体之间战略互动的数学模型的研究。它在社会科学的所有领域，以及逻辑学、系统科学和计算机科学中都有应用。最初，它针对的是两人的零和博弈，其中每个参与者的收益或损失都与其他参与者的收益或损失完全平衡。在21世纪，博弈论适用于广泛的行为关系；它现在是人类、动物以及计算机的逻辑决策科学的一个总称。

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经济代写|博弈论代考Game theory代写|Winner’s curse

Agents with private values know their valuations before the auction begins, and nothing they might learn during the auction will lead them to change their valuations. All the auctions we have looked at up to now have been treated as private-value auctions. At the opposite end of the spectrum are common-value auctions, in which it is common knowledge that the value of the object being sold is the same for all the prospective buyers.
For example, when licences to drill for oil in undersea tracts are auctioned, the amount of oil in a tract is the same for everybody, but the buyers’ estimates of how much oil is likely to be in a tract will depend on their differing geological surveys. Such surveys aren’t only expensive, but notoriously unreliable. Some prospective buyers will therefore receive optimistic surveys, and others will receive pessimistic surveys. So who will win the auction?
If Bob treats his survey’s estimate of the value of the tract as a private value, then he will win whenever his survey is the most optimistic. But when Bob realizes that his winning the auction implies that all the other surveys are more pessimistic than his, he will curse his bad luck at winning! If he had known at the outset that all the other surveys were more pessimistic than his, he wouldn’t have bid so high.
As with the all-pay auction, game theory instructors like to catch their students out by trapping them with a common-value auction. A glass jar filled with coins and rumpled bills of various denominations is auctioned off to the highest bidder, who usually falls prey to the winner’s curse and so makes a substantial loss.
Wallet Game
To avoid the winner’s curse, bidders must take account of the information that the bids of their rivals convey about how much they think the object for sale is worth. The Wallet Game is a toy example. Alice confiscates Bob and Carol’s wallets, and then uses an English auction to sell their combined contents back to them.
It is a Nash equilibrium if both agents plan to keep bidding until the going price reaches twice the money in their own wallets. If Carol bids this way, then Bob will be cursed if he wins by bidding more than twice the money in his own wallet. He then knows that the amount of money in his own wallet is less than half the final price. He also knows that the amount of money in Carol’s wallet is less than half the final price, because she stopped bidding. So the total amount of money Bob has won must be less than the price he paid for it.

经济代写|博弈论代考Game theory代写|Evolutionary game theory

Herbert Spencer summarized Darwin’s theory of evolution as the survival of the fittest. When asked why the animals of some species behave as they do, we therefore look for an answer that explains why alternative behavioural traits were less fit. But how is fitness to be defined?
Bill Hamilton’s definition makes it inevitable that modelling animal behaviour will sometimes reduce to finding the Nash equilibria of games. He took the fitness of a behavioural trait to be the average number of extra children that carry that trait into the next generation as a result of the trait being used in the current generation. With this definition, behavioural traits can be identified with strategies, and fitness with utility.
When animals compete, we can then imagine that Chance occasionally picks two or more individuals from the relevant populations to play a game. A famous example in ecology is the predator-prey game that results in the numbers of Canadian lynxes and hares cycling indefinitely. However, this chapter will focus on games played within a single species that have stable outcomes. For example, what determines how long a male dung fly will wait at a particular cow pat for a female when seeking to mate? Since the strategic problem is the same for all dung flies, we can then confine our attention to symmetric Nash equilibria of symmetric games.
A symmetric game looks exactly the same to all its players. In a symmetric equilibrium, all players use the same strategy. A variant of Nash’s theorem shows that all finite, symmetric games have at least one symmetric Nash equilibrium.
Replicators
Unfortunately, the philosophical waters have been muddied by a controversy over who or what should be treated as a player in an evolutionary game. A whole species? An individual animal? A package of genetic material? Or an individual gene? The title of Richard Dawkins’Selfish Gene seems to tell us where he stands on this issue, but he actually takes the more sophisticated view that anything which replicates itself may be regarded as the fundamental unit in an evolutionary game.
Like the old lady I once heard giving Dawkins a hard time for failing to see that genes are just molecules and so can’t have free will, people often find it paradoxical that game theory could be successfully applied in evolutionary biology. How can an insect be a player in a game? Insects can’t reason. Their behaviour is largely instinctive. They just do what they are programmed to do.
The solution to the paradox is that the players in the game needn’t be taken to be the animals under study. If the behaviour being investigated is largely instinctive, then it is coded for in the animal’s genes. One may think of the genes as part of the hardware of a natural computer: the part where the computer’s programs are stored. Some of the programs control the animal’s behaviour.
An important property of computer programs is that they can be copied from one computer to another. Computer viruses copy themselves from one computer to another. They are self-replicating. The programs imprinted on an animal’s genes are also self-replicating. But their replication is immensely complicated compared with the replication of a computer virus. Nature not only has to copy programs from one natural computer to another, she has to create a new natural computer to which the programs may be copied. Crick and Watson’s discovery of how Nature works this trick using the device of the double helix is one of the great scientific adventure stories. But its thrills will have to be enjoyed elsewhere. All that is important here is that we understand that something exists that does two things:
It replicates itself.
It determines strategic behaviour in a game.

博弈论代写

经济代写|博弈论代考Game theory代写|Winner’s curse

具有私有价值的代理在拍卖开始前就知道自己的估值，在拍卖过程中他们可能学到的东西不会导致他们改变自己的估值。到目前为止，我们研究的所有拍卖都被视为私人价值拍卖。与之相反的是共同价值拍卖，在这种拍卖中，所有潜在买家都知道被拍卖物品的价值是一样的。例如，当拍卖海底油田的石油开采许可证时，每个人获得的石油储量都是一样的，但买家对某一油田的石油储量的估计将取决于他们不同的地质调查结果。这样的调查不仅昂贵，而且出了名的不可靠。因此，一些潜在买家会收到乐观的调查结果，而另一些则会收到悲观的调查结果。那么谁会赢得拍卖呢?如果Bob将他的调查结果对区块价值的估计视为私有价值，那么只要他的调查结果是最乐观的，他就会赢。但是，当鲍勃意识到他赢得了拍卖意味着所有其他调查都比他更悲观时，他会诅咒自己的运气不好!如果他一开始就知道其他所有的调查都比他的悲观，他就不会出这么高的价了。与全付费拍卖一样，博弈论讲师喜欢用共同价值拍卖来诱骗学生。一个装满硬币和各种面额的皱皱的钞票的玻璃罐被拍卖给出价最高的人，而出价最高的人通常会成为赢家诅咒的牺牲品，因此损失惨重。钱包游戏为了避免赢家的诅咒，竞标者必须考虑到他们的竞争对手的出价所传达的关于他们认为出售物品的价值的信息。“钱包游戏”就是一个玩具例子。爱丽丝没收了鲍勃和卡罗尔的钱包，然后通过英国拍卖把钱包里的东西卖给他们。如果两个代理都计划继续出价，直到现行价格达到他们自己钱包里钱的两倍，这就是纳什均衡。如果卡罗尔以这种方式出价，那么如果鲍勃出价超过自己钱包里钱的两倍，他就会被诅咒。然后他知道自己钱包里的钱还不到最终价格的一半。他还知道卡罗尔钱包里的钱还不到最终价格的一半，因为她停止了竞标。所以Bob赢得的总金额一定小于他支付的价格。

经济代写|博弈论代考Game theory代写|Evolutionary game theory

赫伯特·斯宾塞把达尔文的进化论概括为适者生存。因此，当被问及为什么某些物种的动物会有这样的行为时，我们寻找一个解释为什么其他行为特征不太适合的答案。但是如何定义适合度呢?Bill Hamilton的定义不可避免地使建模动物行为有时简化为寻找博弈的纳什均衡。他认为，一种行为特征的适合度是指，由于当前一代使用了这种特征，将这种特征遗传给下一代的额外子女的平均数量。根据这一定义，行为特征可以与策略相结合，适合度可以与效用相结合。当动物竞争时，我们可以想象Chance偶尔会从相关种群中挑选两个或两个以上的个体来玩游戏。生态学中一个著名的例子是捕食者-猎物游戏，它导致加拿大猞猁和野兔的数量无限循环。然而，这一章将关注具有稳定结果的单一物种的游戏。例如，当雄性粪蝇寻求交配时，是什么决定了雄性粪蝇在特定的牛窝等待雌性粪蝇的时间?因为所有粪蝇的策略问题都是一样的，所以我们可以把注意力集中在对称博弈的对称纳什均衡上。对称游戏在所有玩家看来都是一样的。在对称均衡中，所有参与者都使用相同的策略。纳什定理的一个变体表明，所有有限对称对策都至少有一个对称纳什均衡。不幸的是，关于谁或什么应该被视为进化游戏中的参与者的争论使哲学之水变得浑浊。一个完整的物种?一只单独的动物?一包遗传物质?还是单个基因?理查德·道金斯的书名《自私的基因》似乎告诉了我们他在这个问题上的立场，但他实际上采取了更复杂的观点，即任何自我复制的东西都可以被视为进化博弈中的基本单位。就像我曾经听到的一位老太太因为没有看到基因的存在而对道金斯说的话一样

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微观经济学代写

微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支，研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。my-assignmentexpert™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在数学Mathematics作业代写方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的数学Mathematics代写服务。我们的专家在图论代写Graph Theory代写方面经验极为丰富，各种图论代写Graph Theory相关的作业也就用不着 说。

线性代数代写

线性代数是数学的一个分支，涉及线性方程，如：线性图，如：以及它们在向量空间和通过矩阵的表示。线性代数是几乎所有数学领域的核心。

博弈论代写

现代博弈论始于约翰-冯-诺伊曼（John von Neumann）提出的两人零和博弈中的混合策略均衡的观点及其证明。冯-诺依曼的原始证明使用了关于连续映射到紧凑凸集的布劳威尔定点定理，这成为博弈论和数学经济学的标准方法。在他的论文之后，1944年，他与奥斯卡-莫根斯特恩（Oskar Morgenstern）共同撰写了《游戏和经济行为理论》一书，该书考虑了几个参与者的合作游戏。这本书的第二版提供了预期效用的公理理论，使数理统计学家和经济学家能够处理不确定性下的决策。

微积分代写

微积分，最初被称为无穷小微积分或 “无穷小的微积分”，是对连续变化的数学研究，就像几何学是对形状的研究，而代数是对算术运算的概括研究一样。

它有两个主要分支，微分和积分；微分涉及瞬时变化率和曲线的斜率，而积分涉及数量的累积，以及曲线下或曲线之间的面积。这两个分支通过微积分的基本定理相互联系，它们利用了无限序列和无限级数收敛到一个明确定义的极限的基本概念 。

计量经济学代写

什么是计量经济学？
计量经济学是统计学和数学模型的定量应用，使用数据来发展理论或测试经济学中的现有假设，并根据历史数据预测未来趋势。它对现实世界的数据进行统计试验，然后将结果与被测试的理论进行比较和对比。

根据你是对测试现有理论感兴趣，还是对利用现有数据在这些观察的基础上提出新的假设感兴趣，计量经济学可以细分为两大类：理论和应用。那些经常从事这种实践的人通常被称为计量经济学家。

Matlab代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中，其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括：数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发，包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统，其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题，尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题，而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问，这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展，得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中，它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域，MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要，工具箱允许您学习和应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数（M 文件）的综合集合，可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。