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经济代写|宏观经济学代考Macroeconomics代写|National Income Accounting:The Basics

如果你也在 怎样代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics 这个学科遇到相关的难题,请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。宏观经济学Macroeconomics对国家或地区经济整体行为的研究。它关注的是对整个经济事件的理解,如商品和服务的生产总量、失业水平和价格的一般行为。宏观经济学关注的是经济体的表现–经济产出、通货膨胀、利率和外汇兑换率以及国际收支的变化。减贫、社会公平和可持续增长只有在健全的货币和财政政策下才能实现。

宏观经济学Macroeconomics(来自希腊语前缀makro-,意思是 “大 “+经济学)是经济学的一个分支,处理整个经济体的表现、结构、行为和决策。例如,使用利率、税收和政府支出来调节经济的增长和稳定。这包括区域、国家和全球经济。根据经济学家Emi Nakamura和Jón Steinsson在2018年的评估,经济 “关于不同宏观经济政策的后果的证据仍然非常不完善,并受到严重批评。宏观经济学家研究的主题包括GDP(国内生产总值)、失业(包括失业率)、国民收入、价格指数、产出、消费、通货膨胀、储蓄、投资、能源、国际贸易和国际金融。

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经济代写|宏观经济学代考Macroeconomics代写|National Income Accounting:The Basics

经济代写|宏观经济学代考Macroeconomics代写|National Income Accounting:The Basics

The measures of national income that are used in Canada derive from an accounting system called the National Income and Expenditure Accounts (NIEA), which are produced by Statistics Canada. These accounts are not simply collections of economic data. They have a logical structure, based on the important idea of the circular flow of income, which you first saw in Chapter 1 口 and which is shown again in Figure 20-1!. The figure shows the overall flows of national income and expenditure and also how government, the financial system, and foreign countries enter the flows. The key point from the circular flow is as follows:

The value of domestic output (value added) is equal to the value of the expenditure on that output and is also equal to the total income claims generated by producing that output.

The circular flow of income suggests three different ways of measuring national income. The first is simply to add up the value of all goods and services produced in the economy. This requires the concept of value added, which we discussed in the previous section. The remaining two approaches correspond to the two “sides” of the circular flow of income and are the ones most commonly used by Statistics Canada and other countries’ national statistical agencies. One approach is to add up the total flow of expenditure on final domestic output; the other is to add up the total flow of income generated by domestic production. All three measures yield the same total, which is called gross domestic product $(G D P) \Phi$. When GDP is calculated by adding up total expenditure for each of the main components of final output, the result is called GDP on the expenditure side. When GDP is calculated by adding up all the income claims generated by the act of production, it is called GDP on the income side.

The conventions of double-entry bookkeeping require that the value of all production must be accounted for by a claim that someone has to that value. Thus, the two values calculated from the income and the expenditure sides are identical conceptually and differ in practice only because of errors of measurement. Any discrepancy arising from such errors is then reconciled so that one common total is given as the measure of GDP. Both calculations are of interest, however, because each gives a different and useful breakdown. Also, having these two independent ways of measuring the same quantity provides a useful check on statistical procedures and on errors in measurement.

经济代写|宏观经济学代考Macroeconomics代写|GDP from the Expenditure Side

GDP for a given year is calculated from the expenditure side by adding up the expenditures needed to purchase the final output produced in that year. Total expenditure on final output is the sum of four broad categories of expenditure:

  • consumption
  • investment
  • government purchases
  • net exports
    In the following chapters, we will discuss in considerable detail the causes and consequences of movements in each of these four expenditure categories. Here we define what they are and how they are measured. Throughout, it is important to remember that these four categories of expenditure are exhaustive-they are defined in such a way that all expenditure on final output falls into one (and only one) of the four categories.
  1. Consumption Expenditure
    Consumption expenditure $\Phi$ includes expenditure on all goods and services sold to their final users (households or businesses)during the year. It includes services, such as haircuts, dental care, legal advice, and phone bills; non-durable goods, such as fresh vegetables, clothing, cut flowers, and fresh meat; and durable goods, such as cars, TVs, and air conditioners. Actual measured consumption expenditure is denoted by the symbol $C_a$
  2. Investment Expenditure
    Investment expenditure $₫$ is expenditure on goods not for present consumption, including inventories of goods made but not yet sold and of inputs purchased but not yet used in production; new plant and equipment, such as factories, computers, machines, and warehouses; and residential housing. Such goods are called investment goods. Let’s examine these three categories in a little more detail.

Changes in Inventories.
Almost all firms hold stocks of their inputs and their own outputs. These stocks are called inventories $₫$. Inventories of inputs and unfinished materials allow firms to maintain a steady stream of production despite interruptions in the deliveries of inputs bought from other firms.

Inventories of outputs allow firms to meet orders despite fluctuations in the rate of production.

The accumulation of inventories during any given year counts as positive investment for that year because it represents goods produced but not used for current consumption. These goods are included in the national income accounts at market value, which includes the wages and other costs that the firm incurred in producing them as well as the profit that the firm expects to make when they are sold in the future. The drawing down of inventories, often called decumulation, counts as disinvestment (negative investment) because it represents a reduction in the stock of finished goods available to be sold.

经济代写|宏观经济学代考Macroeconomics代写|National Income Accounting:The Basics

宏观经济学代写

经济代写|宏观经济学代考MACROECONOMICS代写|NATIONAL INCOME ACCOUNTING:THE BASICS

加拿大使用的国民收入衡量标准来自称为国民收入和支出账户的会计系统NIEA,由加拿大统计局制作。这些账户不仅仅是经济数据的集合。它 们有一个逻辑结构,基于收入循环流动的重要思想,您在第 1 章中首次看到它,并在图 20-1 中再次显示! 。该图显示了国民收入和支出的总体流 量,以及政府、金融体系和外国如何进入流量。循环流的要点如下:
国内产值valueadded等于该产出的支出价值,也等于生产该产出所产生的总收入要求。
收入的循环流动提出了三种不同的衡量国民收入的方法。第一种是简单地将经济中生产的所有商品和服务的价值相加。这需要我们在上一节中讨 论过的增值概念。其余两种方法对应于收入循环流动的两个“方面”,是加拿大统计局和其他国家统计机构最常用的方法。一种方法是将国内最终 产出的总支出流量相加;另一种是将国内生产产生的收入总流量加起来。这三个指标的总和相同,称为国内生产总值 $(G D P) \Phi$. 当通过将最终产 出的每个主要组成部分的总支出相加来计算 GDP 时,结果称为支出方面的 GDP。当GDP是通过将生产行为产生的所有收入要求相加来计算时,就 称为收入方面的GDP。
复式簿记的惯例要求所有产品的价值必须由某人拥有该价值的声明来计算。因此,从收入和支出方面计算的两个值在概念上是相同的,而在实践 中只是因为测量误差而不同。由此类错误引起的任何差异随后都会得到协调,以便给出一个共同的总数作为 GDP 的衡量标准。然而,这两种计算 都很有趣,因为每一种都给出了不同且有用的细分。此外,用这两种独立的方法来测量相同的数量可以对统计程序和测量误差进行有用的检查。

经济代写|宏观经济学代考MACROECONOMICS代写|GDP FROM THE EXPENDITURE SIDE

给定年份的 GDP 是从支出方面计算的,通过将购买当年生产的最终产出所需的支出相加。最终产出的总支出是四大类支出的总和:

  • 消耗
  • 投资
  • 政府采购
  • 净出口
    在接下来的章节中,我们将相当详细地讨论这四个支出类别中每一个支出类别变动的原因和后果。在这里,我们定义它们是什么以及如何测 量它们。自始至终,重要的是要记住这四类支出是详尽无遗的—-它们的定义方式是最终产出的所有支出都归为一类andonlyone的四大 类。
  1. 消费支出
    消费支出 $\Phi$ 包括出售给最终用户的所有商品和服务的支出householdsorbusinesses 年内。它包括理发、牙科保健、法律咨询和电话账单等 服务;非耐用品,例如新鲜蓅菜、衣物、切花和鲜肉;和耐用品,例如汽车、电视和空调。实测消费支出用符号表示 $C_a$
    2.投资支出
    投资支出 $\mathrm{q}$ 是非当前消费的商品支出,包括已制造但尚末售出的商品存货和已购买但尚末用于生产的投入品的存货;新厂房和设备,例如工 厂、计算机、机器和仓库;和住宅。此类商品称为投资品。让我们更详细地研究这三个类别。
    库存变化。
    几乎所有公司都持有其投入和产出的库存。这些库存称为存货 $\mathrm{d}$. 尽管从其他公司购买的投入品的交付中断,但投入品和末完成材料的库存使企业 能够保持稳定的生产流。
    尽管生产率存在波动,但产出库存使公司能够满足订单。
    任何给定年份的库存积侽都算作当年的正投资,因为它代表生产但不用于当前消费的商品。这些商品按市场价值计入国民收入账户,其中包括企 业生产这些商品所产生的工资和其他成本,以及企业预期在末来出售这些商品时获得的利润。减少库存,通常称为减少,算作撤资 negativeinvestment因为它代表可供出售的成品库存减少。
经济代写|宏观经济学代考Macroeconomics代写

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微观经济学代写

微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。my-assignmentexpert™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在数学Mathematics作业代写方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的数学Mathematics代写服务。我们的专家在图论代写Graph Theory代写方面经验极为丰富,各种图论代写Graph Theory相关的作业也就用不着 说。

线性代数代写

线性代数是数学的一个分支,涉及线性方程,如:线性图,如:以及它们在向量空间和通过矩阵的表示。线性代数是几乎所有数学领域的核心。

博弈论代写

现代博弈论始于约翰-冯-诺伊曼(John von Neumann)提出的两人零和博弈中的混合策略均衡的观点及其证明。冯-诺依曼的原始证明使用了关于连续映射到紧凑凸集的布劳威尔定点定理,这成为博弈论和数学经济学的标准方法。在他的论文之后,1944年,他与奥斯卡-莫根斯特恩(Oskar Morgenstern)共同撰写了《游戏和经济行为理论》一书,该书考虑了几个参与者的合作游戏。这本书的第二版提供了预期效用的公理理论,使数理统计学家和经济学家能够处理不确定性下的决策。

微积分代写

微积分,最初被称为无穷小微积分或 “无穷小的微积分”,是对连续变化的数学研究,就像几何学是对形状的研究,而代数是对算术运算的概括研究一样。

它有两个主要分支,微分和积分;微分涉及瞬时变化率和曲线的斜率,而积分涉及数量的累积,以及曲线下或曲线之间的面积。这两个分支通过微积分的基本定理相互联系,它们利用了无限序列和无限级数收敛到一个明确定义的极限的基本概念 。

计量经济学代写

什么是计量经济学?
计量经济学是统计学和数学模型的定量应用,使用数据来发展理论或测试经济学中的现有假设,并根据历史数据预测未来趋势。它对现实世界的数据进行统计试验,然后将结果与被测试的理论进行比较和对比。

根据你是对测试现有理论感兴趣,还是对利用现有数据在这些观察的基础上提出新的假设感兴趣,计量经济学可以细分为两大类:理论和应用。那些经常从事这种实践的人通常被称为计量经济学家。

Matlab代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

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