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经济代写|宏观经济学代考Macroeconomics代写|Market Failure

如果你也在 怎样代写宏观经济学Macroeconomics 这个学科遇到相关的难题,请随时右上角联系我们的24/7代写客服。宏观经济学Macroeconomics对国家或地区经济整体行为的研究。它关注的是对整个经济事件的理解,如商品和服务的生产总量、失业水平和价格的一般行为。宏观经济学关注的是经济体的表现–经济产出、通货膨胀、利率和外汇兑换率以及国际收支的变化。减贫、社会公平和可持续增长只有在健全的货币和财政政策下才能实现。

宏观经济学Macroeconomics(来自希腊语前缀makro-,意思是 “大 “+经济学)是经济学的一个分支,处理整个经济体的表现、结构、行为和决策。例如,使用利率、税收和政府支出来调节经济的增长和稳定。这包括区域、国家和全球经济。根据经济学家Emi Nakamura和Jón Steinsson在2018年的评估,经济 “关于不同宏观经济政策的后果的证据仍然非常不完善,并受到严重批评。宏观经济学家研究的主题包括GDP(国内生产总值)、失业(包括失业率)、国民收入、价格指数、产出、消费、通货膨胀、储蓄、投资、能源、国际贸易和国际金融。

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经济代写|宏观经济学代考Macroeconomics代写|Positive and Negative Incentives

经济代写|宏观经济学代考Macroeconomics代写|Market Failure

The market mechanism is a simple but effective and efficient general means of allocating resources among alternative uses. When the economy fails to allocate resources efficiently on its own, however, it is known as market failure. For example, a steel mill might put soot and other forms of “crud” into the air as a by-product of making steel. When it does, it imposes costs on others not connected with using or producing steel from the steel mill. The soot may require homeowners to paint their homes more often, entailing a cost. And studies show that respiratory diseases are greater in areas with more severe air pollution, imposing costs that may even include life itself. In addition, the steel mill might discharge chemicals into a stream, thus killing wildlife and spoiling recreational activities for the local population. In this case, the steel factory does not bear the costs of its polluting actions, and it continues to emit too much pollution. In other words, by transferring the pollution costs onto society, the firm lowers its costs of production and so produces more than the ideal output-which is inefficient because it is an overallocation of resources.
Markets sometimes produce too little of a good-research, for example. Therefore, the government might decide to subsidize promising scientific research that could benefit many peoplesuch as cancer research. When one party prevents other parties from participating in mutually beneficial exchange, it also causes a market failure. This situation occurs in a monopoly, with its single seller of goods. Because the monopolist charges a price above the competitive price, some potential consumers are kept from buying the goods they would have bought at the lower price, and inefficiency occurs. Whether the market economy has produced too little (underallocation) or too much (overallocation), the government can improve society’s well-being by intervening. The case of market failure will be taken up in more detail in Chapter 8.
We cannot depend on the market economy to always communicate accurately. Some firms may have market power to distort prices in their favor. For example, the only regional cement company in the area has the ability to charge a higher price and provide lowerquality services than if the company were in a highly competitive market. In this case, the lack of competition can lead to higher prices and reduced product quality. And without adequate information, unscrupulous producers may be able to misrepresent their products to the disadvantage of unwary consumers.
When such conditions of restricted competition arise, the communication system of the marketplace is disrupted, causing the market to function inefficiently, to the detriment of consumers. For this reason, since 1890 , the federal government has engaged in antitrust activities designed to encourage competition and discourage monopoly conditions. Specifically, the Antitrust Division of the Department of Justice and the Federal Trade Commission attempt to increase competition by attacking monopolistic practices.

经济代写|宏观经济学代考Macroeconomics代写|Does the Market Distribute Income Fairly?

Sometimes a painful trade-off exists between how much an economy can produce efficiently and how that output is distributed-the degree of equality. An efficient market rewards those that produce goods and services that others are willing and able to buy. But this does not guarantee a “fair” or equal distribution of income. That is, how the economic pie is divided up. A market economy cannot guarantee everyone adequate amounts of food, shelter, and health care. That is, not only does the market determine what goods are going to be produced and in what quantities, but it also determines the distribution of output among members of society.
As with other aspects of government intervention, the degree-of-equity argument can generate some sharp disagreements. What is “fair” for one person may seem highly “unfair” to someone else. One person may find it terribly unfair for some individuals to earn many times the amount earned by other individuals who work equally hard, and another person may find it highly unfair to ask one group, the relatively rich, to pay a much higher proportion of their income in taxes than another group pays. Government policy makers make decisions recognizing that there is a trade-off between efficiency (creating a bigger pie) and equality (dividing that pie). Some policies, like a progressive income tax system, unemployment compensation, and welfare programs, are aimed at redistributing the pie. While these programs aim to achieve a more equal distribution of income, they also may distort incentives for others to work hard and produce more goods and services. But that does not mean the poor should be ignored because helping them distorts incentives. We just need to recognize that there are trade-offs.
Government Is Not Always the Solution
However, just because the government could improve the situation does not mean it will. After all, the political process has its own set of problems, such as special interests, shortsightedness, and imperfect information. For example, government may reduce competition through tariffs and quotas, or it may impose inefficient regulations that restrict entry. Consequently, government, like markets, has shortcomings and imperfections; the cost of government policies can exceed the benefits. Citizens failing to understand the difference between actual and ideal government performance will find it difficult to decide the appropriate role for government.

经济代写|宏观经济学代考Macroeconomics代写|Market Failure

宏观经济学代写

经济代写|宏观经济学代考Macroeconomics代写|Market Failure

市场机制是一种简单但有效且高效的资源配置方式。然而,当经济无法有效地自行配置资源时,就被称为市场失灵。例如,炼钢厂可能会将烟尘和其他形式的“杂质”作为炼钢的副产品排放到空气中。当它这样做时,它会给其他与使用或生产钢厂钢铁无关的人带来成本。烟尘可能会要求房主更频繁地粉刷房屋,从而增加成本。研究表明,呼吸系统疾病在空气污染更严重的地区更为严重,造成的代价甚至可能包括生命本身。此外,钢厂可能会将化学物质排放到溪流中,从而杀死野生动物,破坏当地居民的娱乐活动。在这种情况下,钢厂不承担其污染行为的成本,继续排放过多的污染物。换句话说,通过将污染成本转嫁给社会,企业降低了生产成本,从而生产出比理想产量更多的产品——这是低效的,因为这是一种资源的过度配置。例如,市场有时产生的好研究太少了。因此,政府可能会决定资助有前途的科学研究,这些研究可以使许多人受益,比如癌症研究。当一方阻止其他各方参与互利交换时,也会导致市场失灵。这种情况发生在只有一个商品销售者的垄断企业中。由于垄断者收取高于竞争价格的价格,一些潜在消费者就不会购买他们本来会以较低价格购买的商品,从而产生了低效率。无论市场经济产生的是太少(配置不足)还是太多(配置过剩),政府都可以通过干预来改善社会福祉。市场失灵的情况将在第8章更详细地讨论。我们不能总是依靠市场经济来准确沟通。一些公司可能拥有市场力量来扭曲价格,使之对自己有利。例如,与处于竞争激烈的市场相比,该地区唯一的区域水泥公司有能力收取更高的价格,提供更低质量的服务。在这种情况下,缺乏竞争会导致价格上涨和产品质量下降。如果没有足够的信息,肆无忌惮的生产商可能会歪曲他们的产品,使粗心的消费者处于不利地位。当这种限制竞争的条件出现时,市场的通信系统就会中断,导致市场效率低下,损害消费者的利益。因此,自1890年以来,联邦政府一直从事反垄断活动,旨在鼓励竞争,阻止垄断状况。具体来说,司法部反垄断部门和联邦贸易委员会试图通过打击垄断行为来增加竞争。

经济代写|宏观经济学代考Macroeconomics代写|Does the Market Distribute Income Fairly?

有时,在一个经济体能有效生产多少产品和产出如何分配——即平等程度——之间存在着一种痛苦的权衡。一个有效的市场奖励那些生产别人愿意并且能够购买的商品和服务的人。但这并不能保证收入的“公平”或平等分配。也就是说,经济蛋糕是如何分配的。市场经济不能保证每个人都有足够的食物、住所和医疗保健。也就是说,市场不仅决定生产什么商品以及生产多少商品,而且还决定产出在社会成员之间的分配。
与政府干预的其他方面一样,公平程度的争论可能会引发一些尖锐的分歧。对一个人来说“公平”的事情,对另一个人来说可能非常“不公平”。一个人可能会发现,一些人的收入是其他同样努力工作的人的收入的许多倍,这是非常不公平的;另一个人可能会发现,要求一个群体,即相对富裕的群体,比另一个群体支付更高比例的税收,这是非常不公平的。政府决策者在做出决策时,认识到效率(创造更大的蛋糕)和平等(分蛋糕)之间存在权衡。一些政策,如累进所得税制度、失业补偿和福利计划,旨在重新分配蛋糕。虽然这些计划旨在实现更公平的收入分配,但它们也可能扭曲对其他人努力工作、生产更多商品和服务的激励。但这并不意味着应该忽视穷人,因为帮助他们会扭曲激励机制。我们只需要认识到取舍是存在的。
政府并不总是解决问题的办法
然而,仅仅因为政府可以改善这种状况并不意味着它会这样做。毕竟,政治进程有其自身的一系列问题,比如特殊利益、短视和信息不完善。例如,政府可以通过关税和配额来减少竞争,或者可以实施限制进入的低效法规。因此,政府和市场一样,也有缺点和不完善之处;政府政策的成本可能超过收益。公民如果不能理解政府实际表现和理想表现之间的区别,就很难决定政府应该扮演什么样的角色。

经济代写|宏观经济学代考Macroeconomics代写

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微观经济学代写

微观经济学是主流经济学的一个分支,研究个人和企业在做出有关稀缺资源分配的决策时的行为以及这些个人和企业之间的相互作用。my-assignmentexpert™ 为您的留学生涯保驾护航 在数学Mathematics作业代写方面已经树立了自己的口碑, 保证靠谱, 高质且原创的数学Mathematics代写服务。我们的专家在图论代写Graph Theory代写方面经验极为丰富,各种图论代写Graph Theory相关的作业也就用不着 说。

线性代数代写

线性代数是数学的一个分支,涉及线性方程,如:线性图,如:以及它们在向量空间和通过矩阵的表示。线性代数是几乎所有数学领域的核心。

博弈论代写

现代博弈论始于约翰-冯-诺伊曼(John von Neumann)提出的两人零和博弈中的混合策略均衡的观点及其证明。冯-诺依曼的原始证明使用了关于连续映射到紧凑凸集的布劳威尔定点定理,这成为博弈论和数学经济学的标准方法。在他的论文之后,1944年,他与奥斯卡-莫根斯特恩(Oskar Morgenstern)共同撰写了《游戏和经济行为理论》一书,该书考虑了几个参与者的合作游戏。这本书的第二版提供了预期效用的公理理论,使数理统计学家和经济学家能够处理不确定性下的决策。

微积分代写

微积分,最初被称为无穷小微积分或 “无穷小的微积分”,是对连续变化的数学研究,就像几何学是对形状的研究,而代数是对算术运算的概括研究一样。

它有两个主要分支,微分和积分;微分涉及瞬时变化率和曲线的斜率,而积分涉及数量的累积,以及曲线下或曲线之间的面积。这两个分支通过微积分的基本定理相互联系,它们利用了无限序列和无限级数收敛到一个明确定义的极限的基本概念 。

计量经济学代写

什么是计量经济学?
计量经济学是统计学和数学模型的定量应用,使用数据来发展理论或测试经济学中的现有假设,并根据历史数据预测未来趋势。它对现实世界的数据进行统计试验,然后将结果与被测试的理论进行比较和对比。

根据你是对测试现有理论感兴趣,还是对利用现有数据在这些观察的基础上提出新的假设感兴趣,计量经济学可以细分为两大类:理论和应用。那些经常从事这种实践的人通常被称为计量经济学家。

Matlab代写

MATLAB 是一种用于技术计算的高性能语言。它将计算、可视化和编程集成在一个易于使用的环境中,其中问题和解决方案以熟悉的数学符号表示。典型用途包括:数学和计算算法开发建模、仿真和原型制作数据分析、探索和可视化科学和工程图形应用程序开发,包括图形用户界面构建MATLAB 是一个交互式系统,其基本数据元素是一个不需要维度的数组。这使您可以解决许多技术计算问题,尤其是那些具有矩阵和向量公式的问题,而只需用 C 或 Fortran 等标量非交互式语言编写程序所需的时间的一小部分。MATLAB 名称代表矩阵实验室。MATLAB 最初的编写目的是提供对由 LINPACK 和 EISPACK 项目开发的矩阵软件的轻松访问,这两个项目共同代表了矩阵计算软件的最新技术。MATLAB 经过多年的发展,得到了许多用户的投入。在大学环境中,它是数学、工程和科学入门和高级课程的标准教学工具。在工业领域,MATLAB 是高效研究、开发和分析的首选工具。MATLAB 具有一系列称为工具箱的特定于应用程序的解决方案。对于大多数 MATLAB 用户来说非常重要,工具箱允许您学习应用专业技术。工具箱是 MATLAB 函数(M 文件)的综合集合,可扩展 MATLAB 环境以解决特定类别的问题。可用工具箱的领域包括信号处理、控制系统、神经网络、模糊逻辑、小波、仿真等。

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